La Educación estudios variados de Kuhn, Palacios y Coll

 

Aspecto	Las estructuras de las revoluciones científicas (Thomas Kuhn)	La cuestión escolar (Jesús Palacios)	Psicología educativa: un punto de vista cognitivo (Palacios, Marchesi & Coll)
Objeto de estudio	Desarrollo histórico y epistemológico de la ciencia.	Naturaleza, funciones y dilemas de la institución escolar.	Procesos psicológicos que intervienen en el aprendizaje y la enseñanza.
Enfoque teórico	Filosofía de la ciencia; análisis de paradigmas y cambios científicos.	Sociología y pedagogía crítica de la educación.	Psicología cognitiva aplicada a la educación.
Conceptos clave	Paradigma, anomalía, crisis, revolución científica, inconmensurabilidad.	Institución escolar, equidad, reproducción social, formación cultural y ciudadana.	Atención, memoria, motivación, aprendizaje significativo, construcción activa del conocimiento.
Aportación principal	Explica cómo progresa la ciencia mediante rupturas paradigmáticas y no solo acumulación lineal.	Ofrece una visión crítica de la escuela como espacio de tensiones sociales, culturales y pedagógicas.	Brinda fundamentos psicológicos y estrategias prácticas para mejorar procesos de enseñanza-aprendizaje.
Coincidencias	- Reconocen que el conocimiento y la práctica educativa están influidos por contextos sociales y culturales.- Proponen superar visiones lineales o simplistas (la ciencia como acumulación; la escuela como simple transmisora; el aprendizaje como repetición).	Comparte con Kuhn la visión crítica hacia lo instituido (escuela ↔ ciencia).	Comparte con Palacios el interés por mejorar la práctica educativa desde un enfoque científico y reflexivo.
Diferencias	Macroanálisis de la ciencia como institución histórica.	Análisis meso de la escuela como institución social.	Microanálisis de los procesos cognitivos en el aula.
Relevancia actual	Útil para comprender cambios en paradigmas educativos y científicos contemporáneos.	Vigente para analizar políticas educativas y desigualdades en los sistemas escolares.	Fundamental para la práctica docente y el diseño de estrategias de enseñanza.

Crónica de Atenango del Río

Atenango del Río siempre ha tenido su propio ritmo, marcado por el canto de los gallos y el andar lento de las bestias. En las mañanas de antes, el aire fresco llegaba con el arrullo de las palomas que revoloteaban sobre los tejados de teja, mientras los guajolotes caminaban altivos por los patios polvorientos, buscando maíz que caía de las trojes.

Las calles eran de tierra, polvorientas, y se llenaban de huellas: del toro que bajaba al río, del burro cargado de leña, o de los chivos que corrían libres tras un silbido del pastor. Y aunque la vida era dura, la sencillez lo llenaba todo.

En los meses de calor, las sandías abrían su carne roja en las mesas de madera, refrescando las gargantas secas. Y el hermoso

río que trae agua, entre las piedras se atrapaban mojarras y langostinos que se guisaban en fogón de leña, con tortillas recién hechas y salsa molida en metate.

Pero también estaban los alacranes, escondidos en las rendijas de las paredes, recordando que el campo tiene belleza y peligro. Entre magueyes espinosos, donde los hombres cortaban sus pencas para el pulque, se escuchaban las voces de los mayores hablando de cosechas, de lluvias y de fiestas patronales.

Así era y sigue siendo Atenango: un lugar donde la vida rural se confunde con el polvo, con el canto de las aves y con la fuerza del río que nunca se olvida. Y cada recuerdo es un pedazo de tierra guardado en la memoria de quienes aún saben saborear el campo.

Crónica de Atenango del Río

Atenango del Río despierta cada mañana con el canto insistente de los gallos y el murmullo lejano de los burros que buscan sombra en los caminos polvorientos. El sol, fuerte y sin compasión en abril y mayo, seca la tierra hasta volverla dura como barro cocido, mientras las vacas y los chivos andan libres, curioseando entre las calles, recordándonos que aquí la vida nunca se aparta del campo.

Cuando el calor arrecia, el río es un espejismo que se vuelve promesa. En diciembre y enero, cuando las aguas bajan claras y frescas, los niños corren a bañarse, gritando de alegría como si el agua fuera un regalo secreto que la montaña decide compartir.

En agosto y septiembre, el aire se llena de moscos, pequeños visitantes que zumban sin pedir permiso. Pero ni eso detiene la vida: las familias siguen reuniéndose en los portales, platicando al caer la tarde, mientras el olor a leña y a comida sencilla llena las calles.

El pueblo tiene su propio ritmo: lento, terco, sabio. Es el ritmo de los animales que acompañan la jornada, del río que marca las estaciones, del sol que nunca se cansa de brillar sobre esta tierra. Aquí, en Atenango del Río, cada detalle es un recordatorio de que la vida se teje entre la dureza y la ternura, entre la sequía que todo lo reseca y el agua que, cuando llega, lo renueva todo.

Quien ha nacido aquí, sabe que este lugar no se cuenta: se vive, con la piel tostada del sol, con el zumbido de los moscos, con el murmullo de los animales y con el corazón arraigado a la tierra. Atenango no es sólo un pueblo; es una manera de sentir y de resistir en medio del río y del tiempo.

3. Formas de reflexión educativo. Kuhn, Palacios y Coll

1. Las estructuras de las revoluciones científicas – Thomas Kuhn

Kuhn plantea que el desarrollo de la ciencia no es lineal ni acumulativo, sino que avanza a través de paradigmas que establecen marcos de referencia compartidos por las comunidades científicas. Cuando los paradigmas vigentes ya no resuelven las anomalías, se genera una crisis que da paso a una revolución científica, es decir, a un cambio de paradigma. Este enfoque introduce la noción de inconmensurabilidad, ya que los paradigmas no pueden medirse bajo los mismos criterios. La obra cuestiona la visión positivista y resalta la dimensión histórica, social y epistemológica de la ciencia, aportando una mirada crítica que influyó profundamente en la filosofía y sociología del conocimiento.

Referencia APA:
Kuhn, T. S. (2013). La estructura de las revoluciones científicas (4.ª ed.). Fondo de Cultura Económica.

 
2. La cuestión escolar – Jesús Palacios

Jesús Palacios analiza la escuela como una institución social que refleja tensiones entre exigencias políticas, demandas sociales y necesidades pedagógicas. El texto examina la función de la escuela en la formación cultural, moral y social, así como en la transmisión de saberes. Señala los dilemas de la institución escolar: su papel en la equidad, en la construcción de ciudadanía y en la reproducción de desigualdades. El autor sostiene que comprender la escuela implica reconocerla como un espacio de interacción humana compleja, donde convergen discursos de control y de emancipación. La obra ofrece claves para interpretar las dinámicas escolares desde una perspectiva crítica y reflexiva.

Referencia APA:
Palacios, J. (2000). La cuestión escolar. Editorial Trillas.

 
3. Psicología educativa: un punto de vista cognitivo – Jesús Palacios, Álvaro Marchesi y César Coll

Este texto presenta la psicología educativa desde la perspectiva cognitiva, destacando cómo los procesos de atención, memoria, motivación y pensamiento inciden en el aprendizaje. Los autores integran aportes de la psicología del desarrollo y del aprendizaje para explicar la interacción entre el alumno, el docente y los contenidos. El enfoque cognitivo resalta la importancia de los procesos internos de construcción de conocimiento, reconociendo al estudiante como sujeto activo en el aprendizaje. Además, el libro ofrece aplicaciones pedagógicas prácticas, proponiendo estrategias didácticas que fortalecen la enseñanza y el aprendizaje significativo.

Referencia APA:
Palacios, J., Marchesi, Á., & Coll, C. (2001). Psicología educativa: un punto de vista cognitivo. Editorial Trillas.

CHEP - El logo y su significado.

 

Descripción Institucional del Logo del CEHP S.C.

El emblema del Centro Educativo Holístico y Prospectivo S.C. (CEHP) sintetiza de manera gráfica la identidad filosófica, científica y pedagógica de la institución.

1. Estructura central

   • En el núcleo del diseño se ubican las siglas CEHP, enmarcadas en un entramado geométrico que evoca solidez, equilibrio y visión prospectiva. Esta estructura simboliza la base institucional y la unidad de sus ejes fundacionales: educación, ciencia, naturaleza y humanismo.

2. Símbolos periféricos

   • Átomo: Representa la ciencia, el conocimiento sistemático y la innovación tecnológica, ejes fundamentales para la investigación educativa y el progreso social.

   • Árbol: Evoca la naturaleza, el crecimiento sostenible y el compromiso ambiental, pilares de la educación integral y la responsabilidad planetaria.

   • Perfil humano con cerebro expuesto: Simboliza la inteligencia, la conciencia crítica y la dimensión holística de la persona, reconociendo a cada individuo como sujeto de aprendizaje y transformación.

   • Libro abierto: Emblema universal del saber, la formación docente y la transmisión cultural, representa el compromiso con la educación como derecho humano y bien público.

3. Círculo envolvente

   • El círculo que rodea el conjunto representa la unidad, la universalidad y la continuidad de los procesos educativos.

   • En su recorrido aparecen las palabras Centro – Educativo – Holístico – Prospectivo, que expresan la filosofía integral de la institución:

     • Centro: punto de convergencia académico y social.

     • Educativo: razón de ser y compromiso esencial.

     • Holístico: visión integral del ser humano y de los procesos formativos.

     • Prospectivo: orientación hacia el futuro, la innovación y la transformación social.

4. Colores y formas

   • El uso del verde sugiere vida, naturaleza y sustentabilidad.

   • El dorado transmite excelencia, prestigio y la aspiración de trascendencia institucional.

   • El azul celeste refleja ciencia, innovación y apertura al conocimiento universal.

   • El negro aporta formalidad, rigor y seriedad académica.

El logotipo del CEHP S.C. Constituye una declaración de principios institucionales.

Cada elemento visual refleja el compromiso con una educación científica, humanista, ética y sostenible, que reconoce al ser humano en su integridad y proyecta su acción hacia un futuro de innovación, inclusión y transformación social.

En este sentido, el emblema transmite la esencia de la institución como un organismo académico de alto reconocimiento, capaz de dialogar con comunidades científicas internacionales y con organismos gubernamentales en torno a los desafíos educativos globales.

Centro Educativo Holístico y Prospectivo S. C.

Visión Ser un referente nacional en capacitación docente y en investigación educativa innovadora, promoviendo una educación humanística, ética e inclusiva, que impulse transformaciones reales en las aulas y en el sistema educativo mexicano. Misión Formar y profesionalizar docentes comprometidos con la niñez y la equidad educativa mediante programas de capacitación, acompañamiento investigativo y producción de conocimiento desde la práctica pedagógica, para fortalecer una educación de calidad, crítica y transformadora. Principios - Educación como derecho humano - Humanismo y dignidad del estudiante - Ética y responsabilidad docente - Investigación desde la práctica - Continuidad y mejora permanente - Inclusión y equidad Valores - Vocación de servicio - Honestidad y transparencia - Respeto hacia los actores educativos (alumnos, maestros, familias) - Colaboración y comunidad educativa - Innovación pedagógica - Compromiso social Compromisos 1. Brindar procesos de capacitación rigurosos y fundamentados teóricamente. 2. Acompañar a docentes en su práctica y en investigación educativa aplicada. 3. Generar materiales y recursos educativos que dignifiquen la labor docente. 4. Actuar con responsabilidad, transparencia y ética en todas las acciones institucionales. 5. Promover inclusión, equidad y respeto hacia la diversidad en cada proyecto.

VICENTE GUERRERO, VIDA Y OBRA PROGRAMA EN RADIODIFUSORA VERSATIL.

Gracias estimado Dr. Y Mtro. Alfredo Hernandez, por la invitación a tan prestigiosa y honorable radiodifusora.

Se agradece sinceramente.

IV FERIA DEL LIBRO EN ATENANGO DEL RÍO; GUERRERO

“La independencia de México y Atenango del Rio”

LUGAR Y FECHAS
Enfrente del Jardín de Niños “José María Morelos y Pavón”
Los días 12, 13 y 14 de Septiembre 2025

Cumbre Mundial del Conocimiento 2025 y el Senado de la Republica.

Agradecimiento

A la oportunidad de participar en la Cumbre Mundial del Conocimiento 2025 en el Senado de la Republica, principalmente porque me dio la oportunidad de compartir la experiencia con mis alumnas, quienes con extraordinaria sencillez, humildad pero gran corazón dieron homenaje a la memora de la Dra. Julieta Fierro.

Can Formative and Summative Assessment Coexist?

 An interesting question regarding Formative Assessment (FA) and the assignment of numerical grades is that, essentially, they are two different—indeed, even contradictory—approaches. However, they can converge or coexist, since the difference between summative and formative assessment lies in the rigor and depth of specialization. In fact, summative assessment requires the very elements and tools that belong to FA in order to culminate in a number that synthesizes a learning parameter.

To give proper weight to FA, it is necessary for the report card to include a written evaluation section, where the student’s opportunities and strengths are qualitatively described—as has been implemented in the 2023–2024 school year report cards.

This qualitative description should be the most relevant and important element for students and their families, rather than focusing solely on the numerical score. The latter, at best, only infers a supposition or predisposition, as the National Education System (NES) has long instilled as part of its evaluative school culture.

It is very difficult to eradicate this evaluative culture. Parents often demand a number rather than a description, which creates resistance and discomfort when governmental education institutions, classroom teachers, and school administrators attempt to account for the teaching–learning process through qualitative means. For this reason, in order to move toward a fully descriptive report card, it is necessary to deepen society’s understanding of the essence of FA itself.

However, in today’s fast-paced, information-driven context, when enrolling or diagnosing a new student, Díaz Barriga, Castillo, and Martínez Rizo all conclude that grades are still necessary because they provide a concrete measure of performance. They emphasize that the key lies in using grades not as an end in themselves, but rather as a synthesis that reflects the student’s progress throughout the formative process.

PRIMARY EDUCATION IN MEXICO IN THE FIRST 25 YEARS OF THE 21st CENTURY

 On July 7, 2025, I celebrated 17 years since graduating from the Public Normal School “Adolfo López Mateos”, Regional Center of Teacher Education (CREN) in Iguala de la Independencia. At exactly 11:40 a.m., after presenting the defense of my thesis “Logical-Mathematical Reasoning in a 3rd Grade Primary Education Group”, I took the professional oath:

"Do you swear to exercise with responsibility, ethics, and vocation the role of Primary Education Teacher, always safeguarding the best interests of Mexican children, promoting quality, equitable, and inclusive education, with social commitment and respect for diversity?"

To which I answered, “Yes, I swear!”

"If you fulfill this, may the Nation, society, public education, and childhood recognize you; and if not, may they demand it of you. Congratulations!"

Thus began a path of experience under the 1997 curriculum plan, with which I was trained to become a primary school teacher, rooted in the 1993 reform of primary education. My career has been marked by cycles of sexennial reforms, truncated transformations, training gaps, and lack of relevance. In 2009, a new reform of primary education came into force, only to be modified and complemented in 2011 with the Comprehensive Reform of Basic Education (RIEB). At that time, there were training programs, diplomas, refresher workshops, and active support from teacher centers and institutions such as ILCE, UNAM, and Tecnológico de Monterrey.

However, in 2013, Peña Nieto’s “Educational Reform” arrived (in truth, more labor and political than educational). To erase that stigma, a “New Educational Model” was implemented in 2015. This meant that generations graduating from teacher colleges since 2008 studied under a plan that no longer existed, were trained for a reform that was later abolished, and were inserted into a New Educational Model without proper training—such as for Clubs and emotional education. Since 2013, non-Normal graduates (pedagogues, educational psychologists, education majors) have been allowed into teaching service, even though in their entire academic career they had never systematically and supervisedly taught a primary classroom.

This generated a national decline in the teaching-learning process. While the contribution of new professionals is not dismissed, there has been no regulatory framework for practice before becoming head teachers, nor systematic in-service training in the new models. Despite this, many young graduates still carry the spirit of the oath in their hearts—"to exercise with responsibility, ethics, and vocation, safeguarding the best interests of Mexican children." Many pursue postgraduate studies, pay for refresher courses, sacrifice family and personal commitments to give more than “enough.” However, most teachers cannot afford such sacrifices and depend on state-provided training.

In 2018, the 2013 and 2015 reforms were discredited, and in 2019 yet another reform was introduced, followed by the 2022 curriculum. To date, there has been no real change in teacher professionalization policies. Teachers graduating since 2008 have lacked a stable, systematic, rigorous pedagogical training system to develop continuous improvement skills and strengthen teaching performance. Those who have improved have generally done so through private postgraduate and specialization programs.

What can be highlighted in these 17 years, from 2008 to today?

• The implementation of Extended School Days and Full-Time Schools.

• The inclusion of English as a subject (now part of the Language field).

• Brief but relevant emphasis on emotional and nutritional education (the “healthy plate” and “drink jar” models, public policies on school food, and efforts against unhealthy diets in school cooperatives).

• Better integration of inclusive education (UDEEI replacing USAER), with referrals to health centers and hospitals in Mexico City (such as Juan N. Navarro Psychiatric Hospital).

• Scholarships, which support students—although their educational use depends largely on families.

• School meals: in Mexico City, cold breakfasts (milk, cookies, cereal) and hot meals in school kitchens, nutritionally rich and balanced—an overall generous and valuable program, though in need of stronger organizational controls.

In summary, the first 25 years of the 21st century, especially since the second decade, have been marked by pedagogical instability. While coverage in primary education is nearly universal, quality and academic performance are mediocre at best. The standardized evaluation system (ENLACE, then PLANEA) was abandoned, leaving only MEJOREDU’s diagnostic test—irrelevant for teachers. Evaluation since 2013 has been demonized as negative, divisive, and aspirational, instead of merit-based.

School dropout has decreased, but overall enrollment has also dropped, as families now have fewer children (1–3), reducing class sizes from 40 students to 30 or fewer. However, smaller groups have not translated into better discipline or achievement. Inequality in infrastructure between rural, indigenous, and urban schools persists—bathrooms, lighting, patios, windows, etc.—still reflecting poverty in remote areas.

Attempts to close the digital divide also failed: Enciclomedia (2001–2006) collapsed because most teachers could not use computers; the 2015 tablets for 5th and 6th graders never fully worked; and during the COVID-19 school closures (2020–2022), distance learning was unequal—urban centers used mobile internet, laptops, and platforms like Meet, Zoom, and Classroom, while most rural areas depended on TV (Aprende en Casa), radio, and printed booklets.

Another point of tension has been parental and community participation. While designed to strengthen education (through Social Participation Councils since 2009 and the Buzón Escolar program in Mexico City in 2015), in practice it weakened teacher authority, often turning families into adversaries rather than allies, exposing teachers to harassment and false accusations.

The 2022 curriculum introduced interdisciplinary “formative fields” and project-based learning, emphasizing social justice, equity, critical thinking, gender perspectives, human rights, and diversity. Yet, mathematical learning suffered significant setbacks: the treatment, progression, and systematization of logical-mathematical reasoning has been almost irresponsibly neglected within the Nueva Escuela Mexicana.

In short, primary education in Mexico during the first quarter of the 21st century has been shaky, unstable, problematic, conflictive, poorly assertive, and extremely stressful for teachers. Student performance remains weak. Still, the dream and the utopia must continue:

"If you fulfill this, may the Nation, society, public education, and childhood recognize you; and if not, may they demand it of you."

Let us go forward, fellow teachers.

Dr. Alan Eliseo Salmerón Nieves

Let’s Talk About Realities

 Let’s Talk About Realities

Education has always been important, but never the most important thing at any point in human history. So, what is the most important? Having something to eat tomorrow, finding a cure, living with safety or justice, paying debts, and so on. According to Carl Sagan in The Demon-Haunted World (1996), Chapter 1 The Most Precious Thing (p. 17), one of the oldest texts in human history, written in Sumer about four thousand years ago (during the final decline of the culture around 1900 B.C.), already lamented the disaster that the younger generation was more ignorant than the one that preceded it. If we have held this perception for 4,000 years…

I believe we have it because we know that education does not guarantee a peaceful life (responsibilities), but it does offer the possibility of a better life (opportunities). Perhaps humanity prioritizes stability and peace of mind over well-being—understood here as the painful process of creating something new, improving what already exists, or having the certainty of winning (investing). But why suffer? Maybe because it is never enough, and regardless of success or failure, the process begins again. This makes education, philosophically speaking, a subject that generates frustration—frustration understood here as “thinking about education.”

There is a certain social frustration regarding educational setbacks: poor academic achievement, the frequency of teacher protests, student apathy and disinterest, government neglect, union corruption and its factions, and the volatile, irregular, and inconsistent nature of educational policy. In short, we are speaking about a sector of society that adds to the broader perception of illness—unfortunately, one that also affects education.

For teachers, it is frustrating to know about the lack of commitment from some colleagues. Many still view the profession as merely a secure job—something they “got,” something to “make do” with. This results in irresponsibility, both professionally and ethically: disregarding class quantity and quality, whether they are prepared, whether they plan, whether they set expectations for their students, whether they go beyond the curriculum, or even whether they understand the curriculum in both teaching and content. In other words, there exists a status worse than mediocrity.

But let us not forget the institutional side. The employer—the Ministry of Education (SEP) or its state counterparts—must also provide the right conditions: Has the government supplied adequate materials? Has it reduced administrative burdens? Is the school located less than 30 km from the teacher’s home (or less than 6 km in urban areas)? Does the school have safe infrastructure against natural phenomena (earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, etc.), against social risks (yes, those you are thinking of), and for basic service (windows, bathrooms, fans, roofs, playgrounds, fences, technology, etc.)?

If we take even a very superficial look, it becomes clear that this is a matter of articulation between the public servant (teacher), the government (employer), and the users (students). If any one of these parts shows weakness or a lack of professionalism, the system collapses and creates the perception that we are heading in the wrong direction.

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EDUCATION IS… A FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT OF FIRST NECESSITY?

Dear reader, today we will talk about the philosophy of education. Let us begin with a few questions: Is education a right, a service, or a product? Something even more complex: Are students users of the educational service, or are they clients? You may want to reflect on these before continuing to read and think about your answer.

Now then, being a teacher implies serving. In a romantic sense, the teacher has been recognized as the artisan who shapes the minds and personalities of the future women and men of our time. The teacher is, therefore, a preacher, a guide, a lover of knowledge whose wisdom illuminates unknown paths for children’s minds. Metaphysically, the role of the teacher is to empower students toward unimaginable limits; civilly, it is to develop human faculties; socially, it is to integrate and multiply the humanity of the student within society itself. That was the idea of the teacher—a notion that prevailed in the 20th century but now resonates as exaggerated and overly idealistic.

There are many stories of success, redemption, and gratitude—stories that feed this myth and magnify the almost sacred image of the teacher. Personally, I prefer the more realistic ones, such as the following anecdote, one that is deeply significant in the field of education, about the student–teacher relationship. On November 19, 1957, French writer and Nobel Prize laureate Albert Camus sent a letter of gratitude to his teacher Louis Germain after receiving the award. He wrote:

“I have received a distinction far greater than I deserve, one I never sought or asked for. But when I heard the news, my first thought was of you. Without you, without the caring hand you extended to the poor child I once was, without your teaching and your example, none of this would have happened. It is not that I attach too much importance to such an honor. But at least it gives me the opportunity to tell you what you have been, and still are, for me, and to assure you that your efforts, your work, and the generous heart you put into your task still live on in one of your former pupils, who, despite the passing years, has never ceased to be your grateful student.”

I value this anecdote because it is real, because it is tangible. We all have one or two teachers who have left that kind of impact on us—the kind that motivates us to keep learning, whether through them, despite them, or without them. And this “without them” should also be understood in a positive sense: for if indeed the teacher is an example, an image to emulate, and a living model of wisdom—whether through preparation, experience, or attitude toward life and the human condition—then yes, even if idealistic, that example of the necessary, the good, and the right remains fundamental.

But how does this influence the perception of education? How should it be viewed? How should it be measured? Should we simply cling to the romantic idea that education is inherently good and unquestionable, thus avoiding the debate of whether it is a right or an obligation? To begin with, any serious reflection must recognize that everything is perfectible. One of the errors of 21st-century education has been to treat it increasingly as a product—something that should instead be a right, like housing, health, or security. Education has been losing its essence.

From here, we must examine whether education should be seen under the logic of clientelism or simply as a service to the user. The notion of the teacher as a “public servant” has blurred the lines of what kind of service the teacher truly provides. Let us recall Paulo Freire’s words: “Education is not a commodity, the teacher is not a provider, and the student is not a client but a human being in formation.” Education cannot, and must not, be viewed as a business, product, or service. If conceived as such, it becomes a consumer good instead of a human right, shifting its role from a social and ethical responsibility to an economic and utilitarian transaction.

This capitalist conception has permeated society, where the teacher is reduced to a service provider and the student to a client or consumer. In doing so, we abandon the philosophical foundation that education is about formation: where the student is a subject of rights and the teacher a guarantor of those rights. For philosopher Immanuel Kant, “the human being must always be treated as an end in itself, never as a means.” Otherwise, as Karl Marx would warn, students become just another object of the market, while the act of “teaching” loses its essence as a human endeavor. Once more, Paulo Freire reminds us that “education is an act of liberation, not of consumption.” Hence, the State must provide it—though perhaps naively, this assumes the State seeks free citizens and not, as Thomas Hobbes described, the Leviathan that exists to restrain chaos.

And so we must reflect: Is Mexico truly a “good State”? That is left as homework. But following Hobbes, the State should control education, for knowledge without oversight (in the hands of individuals) could be dangerous: “education must form obedient, rational citizens loyal to the sovereign.” Another question left open: Where is the New Mexican School (NEM) heading?

Now, to distinguish between user, client, and subject of rights:

• If the student is a user, education is simply a service they access.
• If a client, they not only access it but can demand quality—thus, education becomes a product to be bought and evaluated.
• But as a subject of rights, the student receives guarantees from the State to achieve learning, making learning itself—not mere access or consumption—the ultimate goal.

Returning to Camus’ letter, we are reminded that individual achievement is the product of collective effort. Excellence (such as a Nobel Prize) begins with imperfect letters and evolves through years of learning, unlearning, and relearning. The ultimate end of education, therefore, is to always learn.

To summarize:

• As a user, the student participates passively/reactively.
• As a client, the student consumes and demands.
• As a subject of rights, the student participates and constructs their own formation.

Ethically, then, education may be seen as: functional (user), transactional (client), or humanistic and critical (subject of rights).

According to data from INEGI and the Secretariat of Public Education (SEP), in the 2023/2024 school year, the National Education System (SEN) enrolled 33,062,447 students at all levels. Primary education had the highest enrollment with 13,154,354 students, while early childhood education (40 days to 3 years old) had the lowest, at 225,404. Higher education followed with 4,051,691 students in undergraduate, engineering, and postgraduate programs. All of them are recognized as subjects of rights under Mexican law, particularly:

• The Mexican Constitution (Article 3), which enshrines education as a human right.
• The General Law of Education (LGE), which regulates the SEN.
• The General Law on the Rights of Children and Adolescents (LGDNNA), which recognizes minors as full rights-holders.
• The General Law for the Inclusion of Persons with Disabilities, ensuring inclusive and accessible education.
• The Higher Education Law, which ensures gratuity and regulates universities.

Internationally, Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) defines education as “an indispensable means of realizing other human rights.” Likewise, Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights establishes education as essential to the full development of the human personality and respect for rights and freedoms.

Thus, both in legal and philosophical terms, education is not just any right—it is a fundamental right of first necessity, essential for human dignity, critical thinking, social participation, and access to better living conditions and other fundamental rights.

Dr. Alan Eliseo Salmerón Nieves